[MUSIC] Hello again. We have been discussing the interpretation of Confucian philosophy by Xunzi, who stood alongside Mencius as perhaps the two most influential Confucian thinkers in early China. Their views of human nature opened up a fascinating debate at a critical juncture in the development of Chinese philosophy, and it remains no less relevant today. In the case of Xunzi, his view of human nature as being pervaded by desire, entails a conception of rightness and learning that is aimed not at furthering or strengthening the goodness that is already present within oneself as Mencius would have it. But rather, at nothing less than self-transformation and social organization based on very clear distinctions. Now, whether this makes Xunzi a tough-minded thinker, as William James has suggested, I'll leave it to you to decide. At this point, let's simply remind ourselves of the basic premise before we continue with our discussion. According to Xunzi if you recall, human beings cannot survive, let alone prosper and flourish without coming together to form communities. However, communal life without distinctions or social divisions will inevitably lead to contention. With people trying only to enrich themselves, social disorder will follow. With disorder, as Xunzi takes us through a kind of sequential logic, society will come apart, which in turn will only make human beings weak and vulnerable against the forces of nature. For this reason as Xunzi now concludes, one must never cast aside, not even for a single moment Proper Conduct and Rightness. In interpreting the teachings of Confucius, we have seen how Mencius focuses on the concept of Ren or Humaneness. Often Mencius would speak of Ren Yi, Humanity and Rightness as a compound noun, that is to say interpreting the meaning of Rightness from the perspective of Humaneness. In the Xunzi it is the conceptual compound Li Yi, Propriety and Rightness that takes center stage. Rightness is defined in terms of social distinctions and Li habituated, proper conduct and ritual action is the key to establishing these distinctions, which ensure social order and harmony. For Xunzi this is the real key to understanding the vision of Confucius. And to bring this line of reasoning to its logical conclusion. It would follow that learning, although it should properly begin with the classical texts like the Classic of Odes or the Classic of Documents. It must accumulate and lead to the mastery and thorough internalisation of Li in the end. The capacity to make distinctions is a part of our endowed nature. The biological relationship between father and son for example, is naturally recognised. However, there is a big and critical gap, that must be crossed, to elevate that basic relationship to that between father and son with prescribed roles and responsibilities. And that according to Xunzi is precisely the work of Li. As you know in Confucian philosophy, Li encompasses all forms of rituals and ceremonies. And also the right way to conduct these rituals and ceremonies and by further extension, proper conduct and social norms that guide human behaviour. In this general sense, Li is therefore sometimes translated as "Rules of Propriety." At the level of the individual as Xunzi argues now, Li serves to inculcate the right behaviour that will enable the performance of role specific duties. At the social level, Li-proper conduct establishes and it maintains social distinctions, such as that between ruler and subject. Whether you are managing your family affairs or governing millions of people, it is Li that enables you to inject ethical order into the complex web of relationships. That constitutes society according to this argument. In this way, perhaps paradoxically Li proper behaviour binds human beings together. And makes society strong even though technically it sets them apart according to their roles and social stations. Now, as already looked at concept of Li in some detail when we discussed the teachings of Confucius, I won't dwell on this point here. But do remember that Li does not only regulate behaviour it also has constitutive power. In a sense that the roles we play and the duties we perform with Li as the basis of rightness can come to shape and define us as human beings. From this perspective, you can readily understand Xunzi's emphasis on the transformative power of education, with Li shaping behaviour and ultimately who we become. It’s as if a second nature is being formed and developed. And this to Xunzi is precisely the antidote to the dominance of desire in human nature, not denying it but reshaping it through accumulated effort into a Li conscious, and therefore Yi or Rightness compliant nature, which is to say a heart and mind that automatically, if you like, without the need of any prompting or even reflection, act in accordance of what is right and fitting in an appropriate in social contexts. In addition to the training in Li, Xunzi also emphasizes the importance of music in ensuring harmony. This is interesting and adds another dimension to Confucian, education and self cultivation. You remember that music occupies a central place in ancient Chinese education. It may have originated in religious rituals, but it quickly became a part of elite culture. Poetry in early China was sung, and major ceremonies at court were always accompanied by music. Think of the ancient bronze bells unearthed on archaeological excavations, or the five string or seven string guitar or Qin in Chinese, which was particularly associated with Confucian scholars. Music is important because it helps to regulate human emotions and refine human conduct. It's worth pointing out that the Chinese character for music, pronounced "yue," is the same character for the word meaning Joy. Now, book twenty of the Xunzi is devoted to music, in which Xunzi explains that music in its simplest form, expresses joy, which arises directly from the heart and finds expression in sounds and body movements. But the emotion of joy can be overwhelming, and easily lead to excesses. The larger concern of course is that uncontrolled emotions, not just the emotion of joy but all emotions can challenge the calm and stability of social harmony. And this is where Confucian music comes in as it is composed to help to calm the heart and instill a measure of control over the play of raw emotions. Now, in this context obviously we are not talking about just any form of music. But rather, a particular Confucian interpretation of it. Much of what we would consider as music today, I would imagine, would not have been accepted by Xunzi. In fact, in the Analects we already find Confucius criticising certain types of music that are seen to stir up the motions. So I think heavy metal for example is definitely out. In any event the function of confucian music in Xunzi's view, is to bring people together and harmonise the differences that set them apart. In this respect, music compliments the function of Li from the opposite direction. Whereas Li establishes social distinctions and the proper behaviour that attends to these differences. Music softens the rough edges as it were, eases tension, and draws the participants in any ceremony together in a pleasurable and yet measured experience of social harmony. Division of labor and social distinctions are necessary as they provide a structure for peaceful social coexistence. Li provides the ethical infrastructure if you like, and helps to ensure mutual respect in society. In the same context, music aims to minimise any friction that may arise from such distinctions. From court activities such as audiences with the ruler, to social functions involving guests and ceremonies such as capping, which is a coming of age ceremony for boys, and weddings and funerals, music plays a part in Confucian culture. These are highly structured performances. For example, the early ritual records prescribe how a wine drinking ceremony hosted by a feudal prince should be conducted. Picture a hall with some step leading to an elevated platform where the host would sit. Seats for the guests would be placed in the hall below the steps. And when ready, the chief music official would first ascend the steps and took his place. Then, according to this report, two musicians accompanied by two helpers, would go up from the western side of the steps. Music with a string instrument would be played followed by songs from the Classic of Poetry. Other ritual records indicate that in major ritual ceremonies, the sounding of particular types of drums would signal the start and the end of each part of the performance. And in traditional China, according again to the Confucian Record of Rites or Rituals. A ritual of presentation of offerings is performed for teachers. And this is what he says, "To be observed in all schools, each spring the instructing officers in charge will present offerings to the former masters of their subjects. The same is to be followed in summer, autumn and winter. In establishing new school, a ritual of presentation of offerings must be held for the former sages and teachers." Such ceremonies, again, always, always involved music. In its mature form the lyrics of one of the songs performed in this ceremony go like this, governing the country and setting down the national creed. There is nothing more important than learning and education. The ancient books appeared, leaving a rich legacy. I won't read the whole thing, I'll leave it to you to enjoy it on your own. But just look at the concluding line of this song. His fine name is praised and the ritual ceremony leaves no flaw. The ceremony itself is important. Now, even today, although our standards and taste in music may have changed a great deal. It is still commonly recognized that music forms a kind of universal language that brings people together. And I might add, a very often cleverly exploited by companies in advertisements. Xunzi would say, of course, music is powerful and with Li, they play a critical role in establishing social order and harmony. Because they have the power to shape human character and set the ethical direction of the heart and mind. There were critics of Confucianism in early China, who would argue that strict laws and punishments are far more effective in establishing order. They were called the Legalists, you remember? Who count among them students of Xunzi himself. There were also those who criticized the Confucians for wasting precious resources on ritual ceremonies and music performances. Xunzi's answer is quite clear. As Confucius has pointed out, lasting peace and harmony must ultimately come from the heart. The people themselves must want it, must find joy in doing what is right. Li, Propriety and music as a key part of self-cultivation and education remain the soundest way to achieving sustainable social development. Of course, ethical self-cultivation must also be translated into governance on the political level. And this is what we will briefly explore next together, with Xunzi's conception of Heaven.
